Council of Nicaea

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Nicaea (now Iznik), where the Council of Nicene was convened, is located on the east coast of Lake Iznik in the northwest of Türkiye.

The Council of Nicaea is a world ecumenical council[1] held in Nicaea (now Iznik in Türkiye), Asia Minor. The Council of Nicaea was held twice in 325 and 787. The first council was convened by the Roman Emperor Constantine I (Latin: Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus, reigned 306–337), which was the first synod of the Roman Catholic Church. The main agendas were the Paschal controversy and the Arian controversy. In 787, Empress Irene of the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire) convened the second council and approved the veneration of icons. In general, the Council of Nicaea refers to the first council, which has great significance in history.

The Ecumenical Council (Latin: Concilium Ecumenicum), also known as the World Councils, were gatherings of bishops convened to discuss and resolve matters of doctrine and heresy. Historically, seven of these councils were held.

The First Council of Nicaea (325), the First Council of Constantinople (381), the Council of Ephesus (431), the Council of Chalcedon (451), the Second Council of Constantinople (553), the Third Council of Constantinople (680), and the Second Council of Nicaea (787). Coincidentally, the first and the last of the seven great councils of the world were held in Nicaea.

Background

Icon from the Mégalo Metéoron Monastery in Greece, representing the First Ecumenical Council of Nicaea in 325

The First Council of Nicaea took place in May 325 at the palace of the Roman Emperor for approximately two months. It was convened to address the Arian controversy, which was a problem of the world church, and the Paschal controversy, which was a long-standing dispute between the Church in the East and the Church in the West. Additionally, the council established laws regarding church structure, the role of priests, the readmission of apostates, and protocols for open penitence. Notably, the Council of Nicaea was distinctive in that it was convened not by church bishops but by Emperor Constantine I. Furthermore, the Imperial household covered the expenses for the bishops’ stay in Nicaea.[2]

Overview

  • Period: May to June 325
  • Convened by: Emperor Constantine
  • Venue: Emperor’s palace in Nicaea[2]
  • Attended by: Approx. 300 bishops from the Churches in the East and the West[3]
  • Primary Agendas: ① Arian controversy ② Date of Resurrection Day[4][5]

Constantine’s Political Tactics

Since Constantine issued the Edict of Milan in 313 to legalize Christianity, he exerted influence over the Christian church, claiming to be the protector of the church. He convened the Council of Nicaea in 325, which was a gathering of bishops of the Churches in the East and the West, under the pretext of establishing unified Christian doctrines.

In fact, the Council of Nicaea was a religious assembly involving Constantine’s political purpose.[6] Constantine adopted Christianity as a means to unify a chaotic Rome into a single empire and to consolidate all Romans under one emperor and one deity. However, as Christianity became embroiled in internal conflicts stemming from various disputes, Constantine found it necessary to resolve the tensions between the Churches and standardize the doctrines to stabilize the empire.[7] He made it clear that he would intervene and take an active role in church affairs, even delivering a speech as the chairman of the Council of Nicaea.[8]

Resolutions of the Council of Nicaea

There were two major resolutions made through the Council of Nicaea. One was the expulsion of Arianism, which denied the divinity of Christ, and the other was the change of the date of the Passover Holy Supper which the early Church adhered to.

Labeling Arianism as Heresy

The Council of Nicaea condemned Arianism by proclaiming the Nicene Creed.
  • Excommunication of Arius

One of the main agendas at the Council of Nicaea was the Arian controversy. The Arian controversy originated when Arius, a Christian presbyter in Alexandria, Egypt, argued that Jesus Christ is not God but a mere creature. Among the 300 bishops who attended the Council of Nicaea, approximately 20 supported Arius. It was Athanasius, a Greek from Alexandria, who staunchly opposed Arius during the council. Athanasius vehemently rejected Arius’s doctrine, asserting the equality of Christ with God. Constantine mandated that all bishops sign the Nicene Creed, which affirmed the belief that Jesus Christ is of the same essence as God [Homoousios (Greek: ὁμοούσιος,) meaning “of the same essence”]. Seventeen bishops initially opposed this requirement, but under the threat of excommunication by the emperor, the number of dissenters dwindled to two. Ultimately, the two bishops from Africa who refused to sign were excommunicated, along with Arius, and they were deported to Illyria. Additionally, the writings of Arius were burned.

  • Adoption of the Nicene Creed

The Nicene Creed (Greek: Σύμβολον τῆς Νικαίας, Latin: Symbolum Nicaenum), formulated at the Council of Nicaea, stands as a foundational Christian statement of faith. This creed holds a central place in Roman Catholic theology and has been embraced by many Protestant denominations that emerged after the Reformation, as it affirms the doctrine of the Trinity.

The Nicene Creed, widely recognized in Christianity today, actually refers to the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed, which was revised and officially adopted at the Council of Constantinople in 381.

Nicene Creed in 325 (Original text in Greek)

Πιστεύομεν εἰς ἕνα Θεὸν Πατέρα παντοκράτορα
πάντων ὁρατῶν τε καὶ ἀοράτων ποιητήν·
καὶ εἰς ἕνα Κύριον Ἰησοῦν Χριστὸν
τὸν Υἱὸν τοῦ Θεοῦ,
γεννηθέντα ἐκ τοῦ Πατρὸς μονογενῆ
τουτέστιν ἐκ τες οὐσίας τοῦ Πατρος
Θεὸν ἐκ Θεοῦ,
Φῶς ἐκ Φωτός,
Θεὸν ἀληθινὸν ἐκ Θεοῦ ἀληθινοῦ,
γεννηθέντα, οὐ ποιηθέντα,
ὁμοούσιον τῷ Πατρί,
δι' οὗ τὰ πάντα ἐγένετο
τά τε ἐν τῷ οὐρανῷ καὶ τὰ ἐν τῇ γῇ,
τὸν δι' ἡμᾶς τοὺς ἀνθρώπους, καὶ
διὰ τὴν ἡμετέραν σωτηρίαν,
κατελθόντα,
καὶ σαρκωθέντα,
καὶ ἐνανθρωπήσαντα,
παθόντα,
καὶ ἀναστάντα τῇ τρίτῃ ἡμέρᾳ,
ἀνελθόντα εἰς τοὺς οὐρανούς,
ἐρχόμενον κρῖναι ζῶντας καὶ νεκρούς.
καὶ εἰς τὸ Ἅγιον Πνεῦμα.
Τοὺς δὲ λέγοντας Ἦν ποτε ὅτε οὐκ ἦν,
καὶ Πρὶν γεννηθῆναι οὐκ ἦν,
καὶ ὅτι Ἐξ οὐκ ὄντων εγένετο,
ἢ Ἐξ ἑτέρας ὑποστάσεως ἢ οὐσιάς φάσκοντας εἶναι
ἢ κτιστόν
ἢ τρεπτόν
ἢ ἀλλοιωτὸν τὸν Υἱὸν τοῦ Θεοῦ,
τούτους ἀναθεματίζει ἡ ἁγία καθολικὴ καὶ ἀποστολικὴ ἐκκλησία.

The Holy Supper on the Resurrection Day

The Council of Nicaea put an end to the Paschal controversies that lasted for about 200 years from around 150. The Paschal controversies arose when the Churches in the East and the West disagreed, insisting on the date of the Holy Supper. Pascha (πάσχα) is a Greek word for the Hebrew Pesach (פֶּסַח). Pesach means the Passover, the day the Israelites were liberated from Egypt. At that time, the Church in the West, centered on Rome, had the Holy Supper on the Resurrection Day, which was actually celebrated on the Passover according to the Bible. However, the Church in the East had the Holy Supper of the Passover on the evening of the 14th day of the first month by the sacred calendar, and celebrated the Resurrection Day on the Sunday after the Passover.

“ “A difference had arisen between East and West. In Asia, the all-important date was the 14th Nisan . . . . . . Christians were accustomed to fast until three in the afternoon and then celebrate the Eucharist. In the West, however, the fast was maintained until the Sunday following the 14th Nisan and then only was the paschal Eucharist celebrated, on the ground that that was the day of the week upon which the Lord rose from the dead.” “
— J. W. C. Wand, A History of the Early Church to A.D. 500, 2006, p. 82–83


Constantine was displeased with this difference and tried to unify the date for the Holy Supper. He said that the custom of the Jews, who crucified the Savior, should no longer be followed. Instead of having the Holy Supper on the fourteenth day of Nisan [on the Passover], he demanded that all people have the Holy Supper according to the custom of the Church in the West.[9] The Council of Nicaea, which lasted for about two months, abolished the Passover, which was celebrated on the fourteenth day of the first month by the sacred calendar, and resolved to have the Holy Supper on the day of Jesus’ resurrection, as the emperor requested. And the date of the Resurrection Day was changed to the first Sunday after the full moon following the vernal equinox. It was because of difficulty in calculating the date according to the movement of the moon every year.

“ “About the year 190 the question regarding the proper day for celebrating Easter was agitated in the East, and referred to Pope St. Victor I. The Eastern Church generally celebrated Easter on the day on which the Jews kept the Passover, while in the West it was observed then, as it is now, on the first Sunday after the full moon of the vernal equinox.” “
— James C. Gibbons, The Faith of Our Fathers, Tan Books and Publishers, 1980, pp. 90–91

Since then, many theologians defined the Paschal controversy as a controversy over the date for Easter [Resurrection Day], calling it “Easter controversy.”[10] This is because church history was recorded according to the insistence of the Church in the West that had won the Paschal controversy. In fact, the proper expression is “The Passover [Paschal][11] controversy.”

For details, refer to: The Paschal Controversy (The Passover Controversy)

Limits of the Council of Nicaea

Fallacy of the Nicene Creed

  • Ambiguous Creed

The creed affirming the equality of the Father with the Son, which was adopted at the Council of Nicaea, may have temporarily condemned the Arians, but it did not fully approach the essence of the scriptural Trinity. The Nicene Creed affirmed Jesus Christ as “the only-begotten Son of God” and “of one substance with the Father.” Although the term “Homoousios” (ὁμοούσιος), meaning “of the same essence,” implies the unity of the Father and the Son as one God, this concept is inherently ambiguous.[12] Consequently, debates over the nature of Christ persisted even after the Council of Nicaea,[13] leading to a series of pseudo-Arian movements in church history. These movements emphasized the humanity of Christ while undermining his divinity.

Even today, not only do Christians, but also theologians who profess belief in the Trinity, struggle to easily acknowledge Jesus Christ as God, although they accept Him as the Son of God. Some churches assert that the Father and the Son are one God but exist separately within that singular deity. Others view Jesus as either one of the angels or simply as a human being, a created being. Certain churches argue that the Father and the Son are one due to their shared will and purpose, yet maintain that they are fundamentally distinct from each other. In modern times, some denominations, such as Jehovah’s Witnesses, which claim a difference in nature between the Father and the Son, are often viewed as espousing a form of Arianism.

Additionally, it is notable that the Nicene Creed does not provide an explicit explanation regarding the Holy Spirit. Christianity post the Council of Nicaea failed to fully grasp the biblical concept of the equality of the Father with the Holy Spirit, as well as the Son with the Holy Spirit. Moreover, there was limited comprehension of the nature of the Holy Spirit itself. The theological doctrine of the “Trinity” was merely inherited without a thorough understanding of its implications.

  • The Trinity in the Bible

At the Council of Nicaea, truth was adjudicated through philosophical dialectics[14] and influenced by the political ambitions of the emperor. The Trinity is not merely a theological doctrine subject to acknowledgment or denial; it is a biblical truth emphasized since the early Church. Such truths are not determined through theologians’ debates at religious councils but are inherent in the teachings of God Himself.[15]

In the Bible, which conveys God’s teachings, the concept of the Trinity means that God the Father Jehovah, God the Son Jesus, and God the Holy Spirit are one and the same God, despite appearing differently and being referred to by distinct names.[16] Apostles Paul and John, who grasped the essence of the Trinity, recognized that Christ Jesus is the God Jehovah, the Creator.[17][18] They understood that the Holy Spirit is none other than Christ Jesus, who was crucified for the sins of humanity 2,000 years ago,[19] and is also the God Jehovah who created the world.[20]

For details, refer to: Trinity

Abolition of the Passover

As the Council of Nicaea decided to have the Holy Supper on the Resurrection Day, the Passover that Jesus Christ established as the new covenant was abolished. The New Covenant Passover is God’s feast that the early Church kept in accordance with the will of Jesus, who said, “I have eagerly desired to eat the Passover with you before I suffer.”[21][22] The early Church had the Holy Supper of the Passover on the evening of the fourteenth day of the first month by the sacred calendar, not as a Jewish tradition but as God’s commandment. Thus, God’s people commemorated the holy sacrifice of Christ by eating the bread and drinking the wine that represent Christ’s flesh and blood.[23][24]

However, after the Council of Nicaea, those who continued to observe the Passover were branded as heretics and called Quartodecimans (Latin: Quārtadecimānī).[25] Over time, the distinction between the Passover and Resurrection Day blurred, eventually leading to the Passover, the greatest Christian feast, being completely forgotten. The Feast of Unleavened Bread, observed to commemorate Christ’s suffering on the cross on the day following Passover, specifically on the 15th day of the first month according to the sacred calendar, gradually faded from practice. Likewise, the scriptural Resurrection Day, celebrated on the day after the first Sabbath (on the first Sunday) following the Feast of Unleavened Bread, also vanished over time.

A Religious Council Intervened by a Gentile Emperor

Coin of Constantine I, depicting the invincible sun god on the reverse side of the coin and inscribing the words SOLI INVICTO COMITI, which means “to the invincible sun god, companion of the emperor,” c. 315
In mosaics made around the 4th century, Christ was depicted as the sun god.

Constantine, favoring the church for political gain, consolidated authority over it through the Council of Nicaea, subsequently employing it as a tool to govern the entire Roman Empire in a theocratic manner.[26][27]

It is difficult to assert that Constantine became a true Christian. He equated the sun god, Rome’s primary deity, with the Christian God, and maintained the title of Pontifex Maximus, the high priest of the ancient Roman religion, throughout his life.[28] Additionally, he bestowed upon himself a divine title, appending the modifier “Invincible Sun” (Latin: Sol Invictus).[28]

Historians and Christian theologians generally acknowledge Constantine’s conversion to Christianity in 312 after his victory at the Battle of Milvian Bridge.[29][30][31] However, even after his conversion, coins issued by Constantine continued to reflect his devotion to the sun god. For instance, coins minted in 315 featured inscriptions such as “INVICTUS SOL” (Invincible Sun) and “SOLI INVICTO COMITI” (To the Invincible Sun, the Companion of the Emperor). Similarly, coins from 316 depicted Constantine as the companion of the sun god (“SOLI INVICTO COMITI”).[32] Under Constantine’s influence, many rituals, doctrines, and cultural elements from the sun-god religion were assimilated into Christianity.[33]

After the Council of Nicaea

Secularization of the Church

Christianity, previously subjected to persecution, ascended to the status of the official religion of the Roman Empire by the close of the fourth century. Bolstered by imperial support, the church wielded significant authority. Deviation from the doctrines of the state church was regarded as a criminal offense and could be penalized under the state’s legal framework.[34] Subsequently, Christianity underwent institutionalization. As increasing numbers of people, irrespective of their original faith, embraced Christianity and pursued clergy roles for social advancement, the church naturally underwent processes of paganization and secularization.[35] The Christians who mourned the secularization of the church led ascetic lives in the wilderness, holding fast to their faith.[36]

Despite the significant power enjoyed by the church, ultimate authority was vested in the bishop of the Church of Rome. In 330, Constantine relocated the capital from Rome in the west to Byzantium in the east, renaming it Constantinople (Latin: Constantinopolis, Greek: Κωνσταντινούπολις, now Istanbul) in his honor, meaning the “City of Constantine.” As the emperor shifted his focus to the east, the bishop of the Church of Rome emerged as a prominent figure in the west. Over time, the bishop asserted authority even over the imperial family of Constantinople. Claiming succession from Peter, the bishop of Rome assumed leadership over all churches and came to be known as the pope.[37]

The Rise and Fall of the Arians

Germanic tribes that followed Arianism (orange color), and the Eastern Roman Empire that followed the Nicene Creed (turquoise color) around 495

At the Council of Nicaea, Arianism appeared to have been marginalized, but Arian leaders swiftly regained their positions within their respective churches.[38] Through conspiracies, they purged opposing factions, and even after the death of Arius in 336, Arianism persisted.

Following the death of Constantine I in 337, Constans (reigned 337–350), a proponent of the Nicene Creed, ascended to the throne of the Western Roman Empire, while Constantius II (reigned 337–361), a supporter of Arianism, became emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire. Upon Constantius II’s assumption of sole rule over the Roman Empire in 350, adherents of the Nicene Creed faced persecution.

In 364, Rome was once again divided into two. Eastern Rome fell under the rule of Valens (reigned 364–378), a staunch supporter of radical Arianism. Catholic bishops who adhered to the Nicene Creed were either exiled or persecuted during this time. After Valens’ death in 378, Gratian, emperor of the Western Roman Empire (reigned 375–383), assumed control of Eastern Rome. Gratian reinstated the bishops whom Valens had expelled and, in 379, appointed Theodosius, the army’s commander-in-chief, as emperor of Eastern Rome. Theodosius I (reigned 379–395) was a devout Nicene Christian. He convened the Council of Constantinople in 381 and effectively ended the Arian controversy by outlawing Arianism. However, although Arianism may have vanished within the Roman Empire, it persisted among the Germanic tribes who migrated southward into Roman territory starting from the 4th century.

In 476, the Western Roman Empire succumbed to Odoacer, a Germanic mercenary commander, resulting in Arian peoples occupying Western Rome. In 527, Justinian I (reigned 527–565), emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire, conferred the title of head of the church upon the pope of Rome and embarked on campaigns to conquer Arian kingdoms, including the Vandal kingdom in Africa and the Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy. Following these events, the Germanic tribes renounced Arianism and followed the Nicene Creed and the Roman Catholic Church.[39]

For details, refer to: Arianism

Second Council of Nicaea

The Second Council of Nicaea took place in 787 and is acknowledged as the seventh ecumenical council. It aimed to address the Iconoclastic Controversy,[40] which began in 726 when Emperor Leo III of the Eastern Roman Empire issued a decree opposing the veneration of icons. Convened by Empress Irene, an icon worshiper hailing from Athens, Greece, the Second Council of Nicaea denounced iconoclasm and raised icons from mere objects of veneration to objects deserving of adoration.[41]

Related videos

  • The Passover Disappeared

See also

External links

References

  1. ↑ Council, Britannica
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 The Cambridge Companion to the Council of Nicaea, Young Richard Kim, Cambridge University Press, 2021, pg.77
  3. ↑ 325 The First Council of Nicaea, Christian History Institute
  4. ↑ Earle E. Cairns, Christianity Through the Centuries, Zondervan Pub. House, 1954, p. 112
  5. ↑ The Routledge Companion to the Christian Church, Gerard Mannion, Lewis S. Mudge, Taylor & Francis, pg.45
  6. ↑ Constantine and the Bishops. The Politics of Intolerance, H. A. (Harold Allen) Drake, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000, pg. 609
  7. ↑ The alliance between church and empire, Britannica
  8. ↑ The First Council of Nicaea, New Advent
  9. ↑ History of the Christian Church, Volume III: Nicene and Post-Nicene Christianity. A.D. 311-600, History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff, pg. 238
  10. ↑ Paschal controversies, Britannica
  11. ↑ πάσχα, Blue Letter Bible
  12. ↑ ὁμοούσιος, LSJ
  13. ↑ The Christology Debate, PURSUING VERITAS
  14. ↑ Nicee et Constantinople, Ortiz de Urbina, I. (ignacio), Paris: Editions de l'Orante, 1963
  15. ↑ "Micah 4:1–2".
  16. ↑ "Matthew 28:19".
  17. ↑ "Romans 9:5".
  18. ↑ "John 1:1–14".
  19. ↑ John 14:26
  20. ↑ 1 Corinthians 2:10
  21. ↑ "Luke 22:15, 19-20".
  22. ↑ "1 Corinthians 11:23–26".
  23. ↑ "1 Corinthians 5:7–8".
  24. ↑ "1 Corinthians 11:23–26".
  25. ↑ History of the Christian Church, Volume III: Nicene and Post-Nicene Christianity. A.D. 311-600, History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff, pg. 85
  26. ↑ Odahl, Charles Matson, (2007), "Constantine the Great and Christian Imperial Theocracy", Connections: European Studies Annual Review, 3, 89-113
  27. ↑ Theocracy, Study Smarter
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 Church and state in Eastern and Western theology, Britannica
  29. ↑ Constantine’s Conversion to Christianity, World History Encyclopedia, Rebecca Denova, May 10, 2021
  30. ↑ The Emperor Constantine Converts to Christianity Beginning with the Battle of the Milvian Bridge, HistoryofInformation.com
  31. ↑ Battle of Milvian Bridge, Britannica
  32. ↑ Coin, The British Museum
  33. ↑ Tim Dowley, The History of Christianity (A Lion Handbook), Lion Publishing, 1994, pg. 140
  34. ↑ The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vol. 2, Edward Gibbon, New York: Fred de Fau and Co., 1906
  35. ↑ History of the Christian Church, Volume III: Nicene and Post-Nicene Christianity. A.D. 311-600, History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff, pg. 75
  36. ↑ J. W. C. Wand, A History of the Early Church to A.D. 500, Routledge
  37. ↑ Glimpses of World History, Jawaharlal Nehru, Penguin Books, 2004
  38. ↑ After Nicaea, the church was dominated by Arian emperors, From Daniel to Revelation, March 19, 2020
  39. ↑ Germanic peoples, Britannica
  40. ↑ Iconoclastic Controversy, Britannica
  41. ↑ Second Council of Nicaea, Britannica
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